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"The Takbir (, , "magnification [of God]") is the Arabic phrase ' (, ), meaning "God is greater" or "God is the greatest". It is a common Islamic Arabic expression, used in various contexts by Muslims; in formal Salah (prayer), in the Adhan (Islamic call to prayer), as an informal expression of faith, in times of distress or joy, or to express resolute determination or defiance. Exegesis The Arabic word () means great from the Semitic root '. The Arabic word () is the elative form (greatest) of the adjective kabīr. When used in the it is usually translated as greatest, but some authors translate it as greater.E. W. Lane, Arabic English Lexicon, 1893, gives for kabir: "greater, and greatest, in body, or corporeal substance, and in estimation or rank or dignity, and more, or most, advanced in age, older, and oldest" (p. 2587) ."The formula, as the briefest expression of the absolute superiority of the One God, is used in Muslim life in different circumstances, in which the idea of God, His greatness and goodness is suggested." Wensinck, A. J. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition. Brill, 2000. Volume 10, T-U, p. 119, Takbir. The term ' itself is the stem II verbal noun of the triliteral root ', meaning "great", from which akbar "greater" is derived. The form ' is the nominative of Allah, meaning 'God'.Böwering, Gerhard, God and His Attributes, Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān, Brill, 2007.Macdonald, D. B. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition. Brill, 1971. Volume 3, H-Iram, p. 1093, Ilah. Usage in Islamic rituals nastaʿlīq left This phrase is recited by Muslims in many different situations. For example, when they are very happy, to express approval, to prevent a Muslim from becoming prideful by reminding them that Allah is their source of success, as a battle cry, or during times of extreme stress. The phrase is not found in the Quran, which does not refer to God as akbar, but uses the name al-Kabīr "The Great" or Kabīr "Great", commonly translated as "Most Great" (13:9, 31:30, 22:62, 34:23, 40:12, 4:34). =In prayer= The phrase is said during each stage of both salah (obligatory prayers, performed five times a day), and nafl (supererogatory prayers, performed at will). The Muslim call to prayer (adhan) by the muezzin and to commence prayer (iqama) also contains the phrase. While there are many short prayers like it, the usage of takbir is more frequent than any other short prayer. = Following births and deaths = The phrase is used after the birth of a child as a means of praising God. It is also part Islamic funeral and burial customs. = During the Eid Festival and the Hajj = During the festival of Eid al-Adha and the days preceding it, Muslims recite the Takbīr. This is particularly the case on the Day of Arafah. =During the halal slaughter of animals= The process of pronouncing the name of Allah while performing Dhabihah one must say "Bismillah Allahu Akbar". Other social usage Allāhu akbar in a memorial, Desouk, Egypt "Allāhu akbar" in Arabic calligraphy seen on Imam Ali Mosque architecture (center of the Iwan), 1994 The expression "Allah Akbar" can be used in a variety of situations, from celebrations to times of grief. In a historical account by someone who was present both at the birth of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and at his funeral, the author observes that "Allahu Akbar" was said on both occasions. =In times of distress= The phrase is sometimes used during distress. Just before Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 crashed into the jungle near Medan, Indonesia, the pilot screamed "Aaaaaaah! Allāhu akbar" into his radio. According to a radio communication transcript, the pilot's conversation with the air controller had been in English, but his last words were the takbir as the plane crashed on September 26, 1997, killing all 234 people aboard in Indonesia's deadliest crash. It was suspected that the crash may have been due to either disorientation or turbine engine failure caused by local dense smog resulting from forest fires. = In times of joy and gratitude = Takbir can be used to express joy or surprise. It is also used as applause in religious contexts, such as after a Quran recital, as other forms of applause are considered less appropriate. When Reshma Begum was discovered alive 17 days after the 2013 Savar building collapse in Bangladesh which killed 1129 people, crowds jubilantly cried "Allāhu akbar" to express their joy and gratitude that she had survived. As a multi-purpose phrase, it is sometimes used by Arab football commentators as an expression of amazement, or even as a football chant. = In battles = It has been used historically as a battle cry during war.Ludwig W. Adamec, Historical Dictionary of Islam, Scarecrow Press, 2nd ed. 2009, pg. 32 Ibn Ishaq's Life of Mohammed narrates at least two incidents in which the phrase was used. "When the apostle raided a people he waited until the morning. If he heard a call to prayer' he held back; if he did not hear it he attacked. We came to Khaybar by night, and the apostle passed the night there; and when morning came he did not hear the call to prayer,' so he rode and we rode with him, and I rode behind Abii Talba with my foot touching the apostle's foot. We met the workers of Khaybar coming out in the morning with their spades and baskets. When they saw the apostle and the army they cried, `Muhammad with his force,' and turned tail and fled. The apostle said, 'Allah akbar! Khaybar is destroyed. When we arrive in a people's square it is a bad morning for those who have been warned.'" (page 511) "So he got off his horse and came at him and 'Ali advanced with his shield. `Amr aimed a blow which cut deeply into the shield so that the sword stuck in it and struck his head. But 'Ali gave him a blow on the vein at the base of the neck and he fell to the ground. The dust rose and the apostle heard the cry, 'Allah Akbar' and knew that 'Ali had killed him." (page 456) Life of Mohammed [سيرة رسول الله] by Ibn Ishaq, translated by Alfred Guillaume, Oxford University Press, 1955, 17th printing, Karachi, 2004 https://archive.org/details/TheLifeOfMohammedGuillaume =Protest= During the Iranian Revolution of 1979, it was shouted from rooftops in Iran during the evenings as a form of protest. This practice returned in the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests,Yahoo News which protested the election results. = Usage by extremists = The phrase has sometimes been used as a battle cry by Muslim extremists. This usage has been denounced by other Muslims. Professor Khaled A. Beydoun writes that the association of the phrase "Allah Akbar" with terrorism has been exacerbated by mass media and television pundits. He points out that fictional films and shows also utilize it as a cinematic trope further cementing the association. On flags The phrase Allāhu akbar is written on the center of the flag of Iraq, 22 times along the borders of the central white stripe on the flag of Iran, and beneath the Shahada in the flag of Afghanistan in white script on the central red background as determined by the 2004 draft constitution. =Iraq= During the Gulf War in January 1991, Saddam Hussein held a meeting with top military commanders, where it was decided to add the words Allāhu akbar (described as the Islamic battle cry) to Iraq's flag to boost his secular regime's religious credentials, casting himself as the leader of an Islamic army. Hussein described the flag as "the banner of jihad and monotheism". In 2004, the US-picked Iraqi Governing Council approved a new flag for Iraq that abandoned symbols of Hussein's regime, such as the words Allāhu akbar. In January 2008, however, Iraq's parliament passed a law to change the flag by leaving in the phrase, but changing the calligraphy of the words Allāhu akbar, which had been a copy of Hussein's handwriting, to a Kufic script.Abdul-Zahra, Qassim, "Iraqi Lawmakers Vote to Change Flag," USA Today, January 22, 2008, accessed February 9, 2010 The Iraqi flag under Hussein had each of the two words of the phrase written in one of the spaces between the stars on the central band; the 2008 flag, while leaving the phrase in, removes the stars. =Iran= The phrase Allāhu akbar is written on the flag of Iran, as called for by Article 18 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The phrase appears 22 times on the flag.Jacoby, Jeff, "Is Israel a Jewish State?", The Boston Globe, November 14, 2007, accessed February 11, 2010 =Afghanistan= The Afghan constitution that came into force on January 4, 2004, required that Allāhu akbar be inscribed on Afghanistan's national flag.[ McCarthy, Andrew C., "Cold Comfort on Islam and Apostasy; No one who’s actually read the Afghan constitution should be surprised by the Abdul Rahman case", National Review, March 27, 2006, accessed February 11, 2010] =Waziristan= A resistance movement that fought British rule in Waziristan, Pakistan, in the 1930s used a red flag bearing Allāhu akbar in white letters. Image:Flag of Afghanistan.svgFlag of Afghanistan, with the phrase beneath the Shahada Image:Flag of Iraq.svgFlag of Iraq, with stylized Kufic script, introduced in 2008 Image:Flag of Iran.svgFlag of Iran, introduced in 1980 Image:Flag of Waziristan resistance (1930s).svgFlag of 1930s Waziristan (Pakistan) resistance movement See also *Dhikr *Tasbih *Tahmid *Tahlil *Tasmiyah *Salawat *Hallelujah *Hallel *Alláh-u-Abhá *Deo optimo maximo Notes References =Books= External links * Essay on takbir at Slate Arabic words and phrases Battle cries Islamic terminology Superlatives in religion "
"Claddagh ring The Claddagh ring () is a traditional Irish ring which represents love, loyalty, and friendship (the hands represent friendship, the heart represents love, and the crown represents loyalty).George Frederick Kunz (1911). Rings for the Finger: From the Earliest Known Times, to the Present, with Full Descriptions of the Origin, Early Making, Materials, the Archaeology, History, for Affection, for Love, for Engagement, for Wedding, Commemorative, Mourning, Etc. Philadelphia; London: J. B. Lippincott Co.William Jones (1877). Finger Ring Lore: Historical, Legendary, Anecdotal. London: Chatto and Windus. . The design and customs associated with it originated in the Irish fishing village of the same name in Galway. The ring, as currently known, was first produced in the 17th century.Jack Mulveen (1994). "Galway Goldsmiths, Their Marks and Ware". Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society. . 46:43–64. Description The Claddagh ring belongs to a group of European finger rings called "fede rings".Scarisbrick and Henig, Finger Rings, Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, 2003 The name "fede" derives from the Italian phrase ' ("hands [joined] in faith" or "hands [joined] in loyalty"). These rings date from Roman times, when the gesture of clasped hands was a symbol of pledging vows, and they were used as engagement/wedding rings in medieval and Renaissance Europe. Fede rings are distinctive in that the bezel is cut or cast to form two clasped hands that symbolize "plighted troth".Aubrey, John, Miscellanies, London, 1696: "I have seen some Rings made for sweet-hearts, with a Heart enamelled held between two right hands." The Claddagh ring is a variation on the fede ring, while the hands, heart, and crown motif was used in England in the early 18th century.Enamelled gold fede ring, set with rose-cut diamonds in silver collets, with a crowned heart held by two hands inscribed "Dudley & Katherine united 26.Mar. 1706" — Victoria and Albert Museum Towards the end of the 20th century there was an explosion of interest in the Claddagh Ring, both as jewelry and as an icon of Irish heritage. In recent years it has been embellished with interlace designs and combined with other Celtic and Irish symbols, but this is a very recent phenomenon that corresponds with the worldwide expansion in popularity of the Claddagh ring as an emblem of Irish identity.Stephen Walker (2013) The Modern History of Celtic Jewellery: 1840-1980, Walker Metalsmiths . Origins Galway has produced Claddagh rings continuously since at least 1700, but the name "Claddagh ring" was not used before the 1830s.A freely available but incomplete copy of Delamer's article, The Claddagh Ring (1996), without pictures.Pearsall, Judy [ed.]. (2004) "Claddagh Ring" in The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Oxford University Press. Although there are various myths and legends around the origin of the Claddagh ring, it is almost certain that it originated in or close to the small fishing village of Claddagh in Galway. As an example of a maker, Bartholomew Fallon was a 17th-century Irish goldsmith, based in Galway, who made Claddagh rings until circa 1700. His name first appears in the will of one Dominick Martin, also a jeweller, dated 26 January 1676, in which Martin willed Fallon some of his tools. Fallon continued working as a goldsmith until 1700. His are among the oldest surviving examples of the Claddagh ring, in many cases bearing his signature.Adrian James Martyn. (2001) The Tribes of Galway, p. 60. There are many legends about the origins of the ring, particularly concerning Richard Joyce, a silversmith from Galway circa 1700, who is said to have invented the Claddagh design as we know it.George Quinn. (1970) The Claddagh Ring, The Mantle, 13:9–13. Legend has it that Joyce was captured and enslaved by Algerian Corsairs around 1675 while on a passage to the West Indies; he was sold into slavery to a Moorish goldsmith who taught him the craft. King William III sent an ambassador to Algeria to demand the release of any and all British subjects who were enslaved in that country, which at the time would have included Richard Joyce. After fourteen years, Joyce was released and returned to Galway and brought along with him the ring he had fashioned while in captivity: what we've come to know as the Claddagh. He gave the ring to his sweetheart, married, and became a goldsmith with "considerable success".James Hardiman (1820), The History of the Town and County of the Town of Galway, His initials are in one of the earliest surviving Claddagh rings, but there are three other rings also made around that time, bearing the mark of goldsmith Thomas Meade. The Victorian antiquarian Sir William Jones described the Claddagh, and gives Chambers' Book of DaysRobert Chambers. (1863) Book of Days: A Miscellany of Popular Antiquities. as the source, in his book Finger Ring Lore. Jones says: An account written in 1906 by William Dillon, a Galway jeweller, claimed that the "Claddagh" ring was worn in the Aran Isles, Connemara and beyond.William Dillon. (1906) Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society, 5. Knowledge of the ring and its customs spread within Ireland and Britain during the Victorian period, and this is when its name became established. Galway jewellers began to market it beyond the local area in the 19th century. Further recognition came in the 20th century. In his 1911 book Rings for the Finger, American mineralogist George Frederick Kunz addresses the importance of gold wedding rings in Ireland but does not mention the Claddagh ring. He does, however, include a photo of one, captioned with its correct name. Furthermore, it is unclear exactly how or when the ring was brought to the United States. Usage and symbolism The Claddagh's distinctive design features two hands clasping a heart and usually surmounted by a crown. These elements symbolize the qualities of love (the heart), friendship (the hands), and loyalty (the crown). A "Fenian" Claddagh ring, without a crown, is a slightly different take on the design but has not achieved the level of popularity of the crowned version. Claddagh rings are relatively popular among the Irish and those of Irish heritage, such as Irish Americans,Paddy Sammon. (2002) Greenspeak: Ireland in Her Own Words , Town House Press, Dublin, Ireland. . as cultural symbols and as friendship, engagement and wedding rings. While Claddagh rings are sometimes used as friendship rings, they are most commonly used as engagement and wedding rings. Mothers sometimes give these rings to their daughters when they come of age. There are several mottos and wishes associated with the ring, such as: "Let love and friendship reign."Jo O'Donoghue and Sean McMahon (2004) Brewer's Dictionary of Irish Phrase and Fable In Ireland, the United States, Canada, and other parts of the Irish diaspora, the Claddagh is sometimes handed down mother-to-eldest daughter or grandmother-to-granddaughter.Patricia McAdoo. (2005) Claddagh: The Tale of the Ring: A Galway Tale, Galway Online. . According to Irish author Colin Murphy, a Claddagh ring was worn with the intention of conveying the wearer's relationship status: #On the right hand with the point of the heart toward the fingertips: the wearer is single and might be looking for love. #On the right hand with the point of the heart toward the wrist: the wearer is in a relationship; someone "has captured their heart" #On the left ring finger with the point of the heart toward the fingertips: the wearer is engaged. #On the left ring finger with the point of the heart toward the wrist: the wearer is married.Colin Murphy and Donal O'Dea. (2006) The Feckin' Book of Everything Irish, Barnes & Nobles, New York, NY, p. 126. There are other localised variations and oral traditions, in both Ireland and the Irish diaspora, involving the hand and the finger on which the Claddagh is worn. Folklore about the ring is relatively recent, not ancient, with "very little native Irish writing about the ring", hence, the difficulty today in finding any scholarly or non-commercial source that explains the traditional ways of wearing the ring.Seán McMahon. (2005) Story of the Claddagh Ring, Mercier Press, Cork, Ireland. See also *Ecclesiastical ring *Engagement ring *Luckenbooth brooch *Pre-engagement ring *Wedding ring References External links * 18th century Claddagh ring – Victoria and Albert museum 17th-century introductions Culture in Galway (city) Engagement Irish culture Rings (jewellery) Wedding objects "
"Claddagh () is an area close to the centre of Galway city, where the River Corrib meets Galway Bay. It was formerly a fishing village, just outside the old city walls. It is just across the river from the Spanish Arch, which was the location of regular fish markets where the locals supplied the city with seafood as recently as the end of the 19th century. People have been gathering seafood and fishing from the area for millennia. It is one of the oldest former fishing villages in Ireland - its existence having been recorded since the arrival of Christianity in the 5th century. During the 19th century the Claddagh attracted many visitors, including writers who spread its fame. The original village of thatched cottages was razed in the 1930s and replaced by a council-housing scheme.The Claddagh — the old and the new, Galway Advertiser, 18 December 2008 The Claddagh is most famous internationally for the Claddagh ring,Brief History of the Claddagh Ring, Emerald Isle Jewelry, 6 January 2015 which is popular among those of Irish heritage as both a friendship and wedding ring. This traditional design consists of two clasped hands holding a crowned heart, and symbolises love, friendship and loyalty. The Claddagh area contains a national school, Community Centre and a Catholic Church as well as the new Claddagh Arts Centre. Notable natives of the area include Thomas Grady, recipient of the Victoria Cross. View of the Claddagh at sunset See also * King of the Claddagh * Claddagh Palace *List of public art in Galway city References External links * Photos of Claddagh Galway * Albertkahn.co.uk * http://homepage.eircom.net/~claddaghns/oldcladdagh.htm * https://web.archive.org/web/20130729201342/http://www.kennys.ie/News/OldGalway/05062008-TheGreenGrassintheCladdagh/ * http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishPictures/VII-Claddagh.php * https://archive.is/20130218003431/http://www.kennys.ie/booktalk/old- galway/the-garra-glas-in-the-claddagh.html * http://www.irishhistorylinks.net/pages/Old_Photos.html#Claddagh Geography of Galway (city) "