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"Ahl al-Ḥadith () was an Islamic school of thought that first emerged during the 2nd/3rd Islamic centuries of the Islamic era (late 8th and 9th century CE) as a movement of hadith scholars who considered the Quran and authentic hadith to be the only authority in matters of law and creed. Its adherents have also been referred to as traditionalists and sometimes traditionists (from "traditions", namely, hadiths).; In jurisprudence Ahl al-Hadith opposed contemporary jurists who based their legal reasoning on informed opinion (ra'y) or living local practice, referred to as Ahl ar-Ra'y. In matters of faith, they were pitted against the Mu'tazilites and other theological currents, condemning many points of their doctrines as well as the rationalistic methods they used in defending them. The most prominent leader of the movement was Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Subsequently, other Islamic legal schools gradually came to accept the reliance on the Quran and hadith advocated by the Ahl al-Hadith movement as valid, while al-Ash'ari (874-936) used rationalistic argumentation favored by Mu'tazilites to defend most of the same tenets of the Ahl al-Hadith doctrine. In the following centuries the term ahl al-hadith came to refer to the scholars, mostly of the Hanbali madhhab, who rejected rationalistic theology (kalam) and held on to the earlier Sunni creed. This theological school, which is also known as traditionalist theology, has been championed in recent times by the Salafi movement. The term ahl al-hadith is sometimes used in a more general sense to denote a particularly enthusiastic commitment to hadith and to the views and way of life of the Salaf. Names and designations Ahl al-Ḥadith (or Așḥāb al- Ḥadiṯh () were often approvingly termed Ahl al-Sunnah (), referring to their claim of representing orthodox (that is, entirely tradition-based) Sunni Islam, while they were known pejoratively as al-Ḥashwiyya (), referring to the overabundance of narratives and traditions in their works. In theological polemics, they were sometimes labeled al-Mujassimūn (), referring to how their depictions of the Islamic God were received by their ideological rivals, especially the Mu'tazilites. Origins and general characteristics The Ahl al-Hadith movement emerged toward the end of the 8th century CE among scholars of hadith who held the Quran and authentic hadith to be the only acceptable sources of law and creed. At first these scholars formed minorities within existing religious study circles but by the early 9th century had coalesced into a separate movement under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. In legal matters, these scholars criticized the use of personal scholarly opinion (ra'y) common among the Hanafi jurists of Iraq as well as the reliance on living local traditions by Malikite jurists of Medina. They also rejected the use of qiyas (analogical deduction) and other methods of jurisprudence not based on literal reading of scripture. In matters of faith, they were pitted against Mu'tazilites and other theological currents, condemning many points of their doctrines as well as the rationalistic methods they used in defending them. Ahl al-Hadith were also characterized by their avoidance of all state patronage and by their social activism. They attempted to follow the injunction of "commanding good and forbidding evil" by preaching asceticism and launching vigilante attacks to break wine bottles, musical instruments and chessboards. Convergence of legal schools The next two centuries witnessed a broad convergence of legal methodologies which gave rise to the classical theories of Sunni jurisprudence (uṣūl al-fiqh), which, despite long disputes, share formal similarities. Hanafi and Maliki jurists gradually came to accept the primacy of the Quran and hadith advocated by the Ahl al-Hadith movement, restricting the use of other forms of legal reasoning to interpretation of these scriptures. This "traditionalizing" of legal reasoning is exemplified in the work of Malik's student Al-Shafi‘i, which laid the foundation of the Shafi'i legal school. In turn, Hanbali jurists, who led the traditionalist movement and initially opposed the use of qiyas, gradually came to accept it as long as its application was strictly founded on scriptural sources. Creed Ahl al-Hadith believed that the zahir (literal, apparent) meaning of the Qur'an and the hadith have sole authority in matters of faith and that the use of rational disputation is forbidden even if it verifies the truth. They did not attempt to conceptualize the meanings of the Qur'an rationally, especially those related to the attributes of Allah, accepting them without asking "how" (bi-la kaifa), and asserted that their realities should be consigned to God alone (tafwid). They believed that every part of the Qur'an is uncreated (ghayr makhluq).Christopher Melchert, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Oneworld Publ., 2006, p 154 Ahl al-Hadith also held that iman (faith) increases and decreases in correlation with the performance of prescribed rituals and duties, such as the five daily prayers.Herbert W. Mason, Humaniora Islamica, Volume 1, p 123. Later traditionalists, such as Ibn Taymiyyah, began to accept and incorporate some of the claims of the rationalists, such as the belief that Allah acts according to His infinite wisdom ḥikmah and that His ordainments and commands generally do not contradict human reason since His wisdom, much like the existence of Allah Himself, is apparent to any thinking man of "sound mind" and "pure, unblemished nature" fiṭrah and the belief that many of Allah's commands (and especially prohibitions) are inferrable through reason and inherent human nature prior to divine revelation (a view also advocated by the Maturidi school). Nonetheless, they acknowledged that some things may seem unreasonable to certain individuals, but they vehemently maintained that most (if not all) of the Law is rationalizable and that, even if any of Allah's commandments and ordainments seems irrational to humans, any perceived "absurdity" is the result of human imperfection, be it imperfect capabilities and knowledge or personal desires, and so it is the duty of the faithful to embrace these perceived absurdities regardless. Thus, over time, the views of the traditionalists deviated from those of al-Zahiriyya, such as Ibn Hazm, who asserted that Allah is not bound by anything, whether it be "reason" or human perspectives, and deviated even further from the 'Ash'arites, of which most maintained that "morality" without divine revelation is but social customs. = Theological controversies = In 833 the caliph al-Ma'mun tried to impose Mu'tazilite theology on all religious scholars and instituted an inquisition (mihna) which required them to accept the Mu'tazilite doctrine that the Qur'an was a created object, which implicitly made it subject to interpretation by caliphs and scholars.; Ibn Hanbal led traditionalist resistance to this policy, affirming under torture that the Quran was uncreated and hence coeternal with God.; Although Mu'tazilism remained state doctrine until 851, the efforts to impose it only served to politicize and harden the theological controversy. This controversy persisted until Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (874-936) found a middle ground between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, using the rationalistic methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most tenets of the Ahl al-Hadith doctrine. A rival compromise between rationalism and traditionalism emerged from the work of al-Maturidi (d. c. 944), and one of these two schools of theology was accepted by members of all Sunni madhhabs, with the exception of most Hanbalite and some Shafi'i scholars, who persisted in their rejection of kalam, although they often resorted to rationalistic arguments themselves, even while claiming to rely on the literal text of scripture. Although the scholars who rejected the Ash'ari and Maturidi synthesis were in the minority, their emotive, narrative-based approach to faith remained influential among the urban masses in some areas, particularly in Abbasid Baghdad.; While Ash'arism and Maturidism are generally called the Sunni "orthodoxy", the traditionalist school has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni creed.: "The Ash‘ari school of theology is often called the Sunni ‘orthodoxy.’ But the original ahl al-hadith, early Sunni creed from which Ash‘arism evolved has continued to thrive alongside it as a rival Sunni ‘orthodoxy’ as well." In the modern era it has had a disproportionate impact on Islamic theology, having been appropriated by Wahhabi and other Salafi currents and spread beyond the confines of the Hanbali school of law. References Sources * Hadith Islamic theology Islamic jurisprudence History of Islam Islamic terminology "
"Bethlehem Chapel in Prague Bethlehem Chapel (interior) in Prague The Bethlehem Chapel (') is a medieval religious building in the Old Town of Prague, Czech Republic, notable for its connection with the origins of the Bohemian Reformation, especially with the Czech reformer Jan Hus. History It was founded in 1391 by Wenceslas Kriz (known as 'the Merchant'), and John of Milheim, and taught solely in the Czech vernacular, thus breaking with German domination of the Medieval Bohemian church.Spinka, Matthew. John Hus: A Biography. 1968, Princeton UP. p. 47 The building was never officially called a church, only a chapel, though it could contain 3,000 people; indeed, the chapel encroached upon the parish of Sts. Philip and James, and John of Milheim paid the pastor of that church 90 grossi as compensation.Spinka, p. 47. Hus became a rector and a preacher in March 1402. After Hus's excommunication in 1412, the Pope ordered the Bethlehem chapel to be pulled down, although this action was rejected by the Czech majority on the Old Town council.Spinka, pp 162-163 After Hus's death, he was succeeded by Jacob of Mies. In the 17th century, the building was acquired by the Jesuits. It fell into disrepair and in 1786 it was demolished; in 1836–1837 an apartment building was built in its place. Under the Czechoslovakian communist regime the building was restored by the government to its state at the time of Hus. Most of the chapel's exterior walls and a small portion of the pulpit date back to the medieval chapel. The wall paintings are largely from Hus's time there, and the text below is taken from his work De sex erroribus, and contrast the poverty of Christ with the riches of the Catholic Church of Hus's time.Spinka, pp. 48-49 Asteroid 90892 Betlémská kaple, discovered by Czech astronomer Miloš Tichý at the Kleť Observatory in 1997, was named after the chapel. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 3 February 2015 (). References External links * 1384 establishments in Europe Churches in Prague 1 Roman Catholic chapels in the Czech Republic National Cultural Monuments of the Czech Republic Jan Hus "
"is a 1986 platformer video game published by Sega and developed by Escape (now known as Westone Bit Entertainment). Originally designed for arcades, it was later ported to the SG-1000, Mark III/Master System and Game Gear video game consoles by Sega, and to the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC home computers by Activision. The game is also known as for its Sega Mark III release in Japan and Revenge of Drancon for its Game Gear release in North America. A high definition remake of the game, titled Wonder Boy Returns, was developed by CFK and released on Steam on October 12, 2016. It was the first in the long-running Wonder Boy series of games and was followed up by five sequels, Wonder Boy in Monster Land, Wonder Boy III: Monster Lair, Wonder Boy III: The Dragon's Trap, Wonder Boy in Monster World and Monster World IV. The game was also adapted by Hudson Soft as Adventure Island, which spawned its own series of games. Gameplay The titular Wonder Boy is a tribal caveman- like boy whose girlfriend Tina has been captured by the dark King (known as Drancon in the Game Gear version). The player must guide the Wonder Boy through seven "areas", each consisting of four "rounds". The boy can arm himself with a stone hatchet, which he can throw at oncoming foes, a skateboard with which he can rush through the levels and temporary protection by an angel which allows him to destroy foes by simply running into them. All of the aforementioned power-ups are obtained by breaking open eggs. These eggs can also contain unpleasant surprises – curses which cause him to lose vitality more quickly than usual, and poisonous mushrooms which reduce the boy's vitality in one go. The player must remain aware of the vitality meter, which constantly runs down at a steady pace and can only be refilled by collecting fruit throughout the level. There is also one doll to collect in each level, which doubles the bonus points awarded at the end of the level. If all 28 dolls are collected, then an bonus eighth area will be unlocked. At the end of every "area", the boy will encounter an incarnation of the chief antagonist as a boss character. Once defeated, the mighty lord's mask flies off and transforms into an item such as a tea cup or a piece of fruit, before subsequently making his escape. A two-player alternating mode is available where each player takes turn whenever the other one loses a life. Plot The tropical wonder boy himself Tom Tom must save his girlfriend Tina from demons and monsters. Ports =SG-1000= The first home version of Wonder Boy was released exclusively in Japan for the SG-1000 (Sega's first video game console) during the same year the arcade version was released. The game was released in a "My Card" format, which required the "Card Catcher" peripheral. Because of the severe hardware differences, the game was remade completely for the SG-1000 with an all new set of stages. Certain enemies, stages, and items were also omitted, such as the skateboard. = Master System and Game Gear= The version of Wonder Boy for the Master System and Game Gear was a direct port of the arcade title, with some minor reductions to accommodate the more limited hardware. In Japan, the Sega Mark III version was entitled Super Wonder Boy to differentiate it from the previous port, although the overseas releases dropped the word "Super" from the title. The Game Gear port in the United States was entitled Revenge of Drancon. The graphics were lifted straight from the arcade version, but the HUD was restricted to a simple vitality bar – the score and number of lives were displayed prior to starting the level. The sound was modified slightly to adapt it to the more limited audio hardware. The graphics were brighter. The controls were modified slightly to make it possible to only perform a high jump when the run button was pressed, whereas it was possible in the arcade version to perform one simply by being in motion when the jump button was pressed. However, the most important aspect that differentiated it from its arcade counterpart was the addition of "areas". Wonder Boy for the Master System and Game Gear had nine areas; this included all seven areas from the arcade original + two new areas created specifically for this version. The new areas featured unique level designs different than the rest of the game. These two areas were dubbed as the fourth area and eighth area in the game. This resulted in a modification on the numbering for the areas lifted from the arcade original (for example, what was the fourth area on the arcade version became the fifth area on the SMS/GG version). As with the arcade version, collecting all dolls in the game would reveal an extra "area" which, in this case, would be the tenth area. = ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC = The license to produce the home computer versions of Wonder Boy was awarded to Activision, who produced versions of the game for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC in 1987. The game was true in spirit to the original, although the levels beyond level 4 differed to allow for the necessary multi-load system. The first round of each area was always a forest, the second an ocean, the third a cave and the fourth a forest at nighttime (the C64 had round 1 at night time and round 4 during the day). This was not the case in the console and arcade versions, in which the areas provided more variation (although based on these same four themes). The Amstrad CPC version contained the graphics used in the C64 conversion, but the sound from the Spectrum conversion. Some Spectrum versions were afflicted with a bug that prevented the game from preloading all four levels in 128K mode – the fourth level's graphics would not load correctly, and it would be impossible for the player to move before the game crashed and the computer rebooted within around three seconds. As a result, 128K owners were forced to boot into 48K mode to run the game, and did not enjoy the benefit of having all levels preloaded as was designed. Under 48K mode, however, the 128K music still worked. = Mobile phone port = In 2004, Sega released a pixel-perfect conversion of the game designed for mobile phones. = Wii Virtual Console = On March 31, 2008, Wonder Boy was made available for play on the Nintendo Wii Virtual Console in North America. Japan and Europe got the game a week later. The game is available for 500 Wii points, and is an emulation of the Sega Master System version. = Remake= A high- definition remake of the game, titled Wonder Boy Returns, was developed by CFK and released on Steam on October 12, 2016, later releasing on PlayStation 4 on March 30, 2017. A limited run physical edition of the PS4 version was released by Strictly Limited Games on January 27, 2019.https://limitedgamenews.com/2019/01/22/wonder-boy-returns-playstation-4/ An enhanced version, Wonder Boy Returns Remix, was released on Nintendo Switch on May 23, 2019.https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2019-05-02/cfk-releases- wonder-boy-returns-remix-game-on-switch-on-may-23/.146333 Clones Escape had a licensing arrangement whereby it owned the rights to the game design, but Sega retained the Wonder Boy trademark. Because of this, Escape teamed up with Hudson Soft to produce a conversion of the game for the NES, under a new license. To get around the licensing issue, Hudson Soft had the title changed which resulted into Adventure Island. Although Hudson could have featured the generic boy from Wonder Boy as the main character of Adventure Island, it inserted instead a caricature of Takahashi Meijin (known as Master Higgins in English games). Since Adventure Island is based on the arcade version of Wonder Boy, it does not contain any of the original levels found in the Master System or Game Gear ports. The bonus stage that was reserved for collecting all the dolls in Wonder Boy is integrated in this game as a regular area.http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/wonder-boy/ In this arrangement, once again, Hudson Soft retained the rights to the character and name, allowing the company to continue to produce future games using the Adventure Island name and characters. These sequels are not based on the Wonder Boy sequels. Hudson released Champion Takahashi's Adventure Island for the MSX. This version featured Master Higgins as the main character but retained the music of Wonder Boy, unlike the NES Adventure Island which had a completely different soundtrack. Escape repeated the same kind of task by converting Sega's 1991 beat 'em up arcade Riot City, into Hudson Soft's 1992 TurboGrafx-CD title Riot Zone. Through its 2012 absorption of Hudson Soft, Konami currently owns the rights to the Adventure Island series. Arcade hardware The game ran on Sega's proprietary System 1 hardware, based on a Z80 processor running at 4 MHz. Audio was provided by two 2 MHz SN76496 chips with a 4 MHz Z80 co- processor. The graphics were provided by a raster video unit at a resolution of 256 x 224. The game required a cabinet that provided a two-axis joystick and three input buttons – one to act as a start button, two as gameplay buttons. Critical reaction =Arcade version= Upon release, the arcade game was critically acclaimed. In Japan, Game Machine listed Wonder Boy on their May 15, 1986 issue as being the fifth most-successful table arcade unit of the year. In the July 1986 issue of Computer and Video Games, the game was lauded by reviewer Clare Edgeley for the detailed, bright, colorful graphics and simple addictive gameplay, whilst some criticism was leveled towards the lack of variety. She also stated it reminds her of Super Mario Bros. though "not as complicated but just as playable." Contemporary writers now note that both games share a common ancestor in Pac-Land.at IGN Wonder Boy was a commercial success in arcades. It appeared at number-two on Euromax's nationwide UK arcade chart in 1987, just below Capcom's 1942 at number- one.Arcade Action, Computer and Video Games, December 1987 =Amstrad CPC version= Amstrad Action awarded the Amstrad CPC version of the game 68% on its original release in 1987, and 62% on its re-release three years later. Computing With the Amstrad awarded the game 88% on its original release. =ZX Spectrum version= CRASH remained unconvinced, citing technical shortcomings, including poor character-based scrolling, considerable slowdown, and confusion induced by the monochrome display.Crash Magazine, issue 43, p. 82 On its re- release, while quoting the aforementioned problems, the reviewer was willing to overlook them, highlighting the quality of the sprites and the fun offered by the game, and offering it 69%.Crash Magazine, issue 79, p. 49 Sinclair User was the most enthusiastic about the game, offering it 8 out of 10 on its original release,Sinclair User Magazine, issue 65, p. 67 and 72% on its re- release.Sinclair User Magazine, issue 100, p.26 Your Sinclair offered 7 out of 10 on its original releaseYour Sinclair Magazine, issue 20, p. 32 and 67% on its re-release.Your Sinclair Magazine, issue 54, p. 51 =Commodore 64 version= The C64 version shares the same graphics as the Amstrad CPC version; unlike the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad versions, however, the game featured smooth horizontal scrolling. Zzap rated the game 52% criticising the poor sound and labelling the actual arcade game as 'ordinary'. =Mobile version= IGN awarded it 7.1 out of 10, praising its accuracy to the arcade original. Notes and References =Notes= =References= External links *Official Sega minisite *Official Arcade Archives minisite *Official PlayStation minisite *Official Nintendo minisite 1986 video games Sega video games Sega System 1 games Arcade games Master System games SG-1000 games Sega Game Gear games Amstrad CPC games Commodore 64 games ZX Spectrum games Mobile games Wonder Boy series Sega arcade games Virtual Console games PlayStation 4 games PlayStation Network games Platform games Video games developed in Japan de:Wonder Boy fi:Wonder Boy Activision games Single-player video games "